Biological makeup of men different compared to women
Crime related factors
This question is about birth control
Suggest two reasons why the percentage of women using some types of birth control is low in some countries [2+2]
Religious/cultural reasons
Poverty: cannot afford birth control
Access: many women live in remote regions and do not have access to contraceptives
Lack of gender empowerment: could be low priority that contraceptives not there
Explain two reasons why the crude death rate is falling in most LICs [2+2]
Vaccination programmes
Water and sanitation
Increased wealth in some nations: more hospitals, better health care
Improving food security measures
Education, especially of women makes healthier families
Diet, improving due to better access and distribution
Examine the problems that result from high dependency ratios [E]
Dependency ratio: the ratio of the dependent population (those aged below 15 and above 64) to the economically active population (population aged 15â64)
High demand on health services and healthcare costs due to large elderly population
public/private pension schemes not being able to support the elderly population
Strain on educational facilities in countries with a high birth rate
Small working population left not being able to support the dependent population
Limited tax revenues generated, only allowing limited investment in infrastructure and services
Global climate: vulnerability and resilience
Describe the change in albedo as ice melts and is replaced by soil/bare rock [2]
the ice melts and is replaced by rock so there is a change in the color and hence the albedo created as ice reflects more heat
the dark surface of the rock absorbs more insulation, leading to a rise in temperature
there is also a positive feedback loop: melting ice reduces albedo, so less reflection, and more energy is absorbed and hence an increase in temperature
Differentiate between the greenhouse effect and global warming [2]
the greenhouse effect is a natural effect in which certain gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and CFCs) allow SWR from the sun to pass through the atmosphere and heat up the path, but trap an increasing proportion of LWR from the earth
this radiation leads to the warming of the atmosphere, and is essential for our survival
in contrast, global warming is an increase in temperature around the world, that started in the 1960s, and has been going on most likely because of human activity
Distinguish between global climate change and enhanced greenhouse effect [4]
Global climate (GCC) change is the change in global patterns of climate (precipitation, temperature, wind, pressure systems)
Enhanced greenhouse (EGE) effect is the increasing amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere as a result of human activities
GCC can have natural causes whereas the EGG is anthropogenic
GCC can relate to any aspect of climate whereas the EGE specifically impacts upon temperature
GCC can involve cooling periods whereas EGE is associated with global warming
EGE is a major cause of GCC
Explain how deforestation may contribute to global warming [3]
deforestation releases carbon dioxide are removes a valuable carbon sink
this increases the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas linked to global warming as it helps raise the quantity of heat retained by the atmosphere
This question is about soil degradation
State likely causes of soil degradation
overgrazing, agriculture, overexploitation of vegetation for fuelwood deforestation, salinization, urban growth, industrialization
Explain socio-economic consequences of soil degradation
loss of agriculture productivity of land acts as push factors to migration
loss of agriculture productivity, food shortages, famine, push factor, farmers too weak to work, other farmers discouraged from farming, less farmers so even less food
reduced aquifer recharge damages farmersâ incomes and water access
loss of employment, increased poverty in an area
creates environmental refugees, problems of displaced populations
This question is about the climate change of an increase in 2ÂșC in sub-Saharan Africa
Outline the likely changes in crop production in sub-Saharan Africa, if there is a temperature increase of 2ÂșC [2]
40â80% of maize, millet, and sorghum crops lost
reduction in crop production of wheat, maize, and sorghum (change in agriculture patterns)
Suggest reasons for the changes outlined in (a) [2]
increased temperature causes an increase in evaporation, which causes a reduction in moisture levels, and hence an increase in erosivity (so less plants grown)
because of droughts due to high evaporation and less moisture, the soil loses important nutrients for plant growth and hence reduces the fertile content of the soil
the decrease in crop productivity discourages farmers from farming, so in the future there will be less farmers, and hence an even lower crop productivity
because of human population growth, more farmland must be used for buildings and other infrastructural development; agricultural land is used up
there can also be extreme heat waves in the summer making soil drier than normal with less water and nutrients
Explain why there could be a decrease in biodiversity
there are less plants due to the increase in moistures and decrease in nutrients from the soil, so herbivores are affected; there could be a loss in grazing land
because herbivores are lower in number because of less food, food webs are affected and even carnivores are reduced in population
an increase in temperature causes an increase in drought conditions
decertification and desert migration takes placeââdesert migration reduces the fertile content of the soil (there is an increase in silica, making the soil less fertile)
this desertification causes a loss of Savanna, which is a more suitable habitat for many plants and animals than the desert
Explain one social problem that court result from climate change in sub-Saharan Africa [2]
climate changes in sub-Saharan Africa may cause many farmers to stop farming and migrate to urban areas
farmers will produce less food and receive less money and become impoverished; they might look for alternative employment in urban areas
climate change may lead to malnutrition, especially in farmers who get too weak to work
malnourished mothers will give birth to underweight children, and they could have mental problems, so their life chances are badly affected
Global resource consumption and security
Explain how demand for energy resources is changing [3]
Geographical pattern of demand is projected to shift from the OECD region to NICs
Demand for and use of energy resources by NICs has been rapidly increasing, although HICs are major consumers
Energy resources are used in large quantities for manufacturing and transporting in MICs and NICs
LICs and MICs continue to grow faster than HICs but their consumption remains low by comparison
Explain why the ecological footprint of HICs is greater than that of LICs [6]
Smaller rates of resource consumption in LICs
In HICs people have more disposable income, so they have a higher consumption and demand for energy resources
HIC resource use is often more wasteful and they produce more pollution
People in LICs have less to spend on consumption, and the informal economy is responsible for recycling many resources
HICs have a meat-eating diet; 30% of the diet may be based on animal protein, and this way only a small amount of energy is transported to the people
Greenhouse gas emissions affect the footprint; HICs import and export more which leads to more transport which releases greenhouse gases
Explain food security [2]
The availability and access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food
To meet the dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life
Explain the limitations of recycling as a strategy to reduce global resource consumption [3]
Energy still consumed in transportation (import and export) of waste to recycling centers
Energy used for recycling process
Some materials canât be recycled or are too expensive
Recycling not available at a large enough scale to deal with all the waste
There may be better alternatives: substitution, lower consumption
Desire for economic growth greater than desire for sustainability
This question is about malthus and other theories
Explain the neo-Malthusian view of the relationship between population size and resource consumption. [4]
Neo = contemporary supporters of views of Malthus
Human population has a carrying capacity
Because it increases geometrically while resources increase arithmetically
Leading to check (positive or preventive), or a need for anti-natalist policies
Explain the anti-Malthusian view of the relationship between population and resources [6]
Resources will keep pace with population growth, and carrying capacity will increase as human population increases
The use of technological fixes (in agriculture to achieve higher yields, GMO)
Resource substitution overcome resource depletion
Recycling allows conservation of existing resources
This question is about food and hunger
Briefly describe the difference between malnutrition and undernutrition [3]
Undernutrition is defined as the shortage of food/insufficient calorie intake and/or protein intake (refers to quantity)
Malnutrition is an imbalance of food such as vitamins, fats, carbohydrates (refers to quality of food, or deficiency)
Malnutrition takes place in MEDCs (obesity) and undernutrition takes place in LEDCs (protein deficiency)
Using examples, explain why food aid does not always alleviate hunger [8]
Food aid helps as emergency short term response for the immediate alleviation of hunger, decreasing mortality and controlling disease
It has detrimental effects: lowering food production in receiving country, increased dependency, increasing levels of corruption (food not distributed equally)
This question is about the sustainable development goals
Explain why they might be difficult to achieve
They are so ambitious in their aims
Population continues to grow, and standards of living are rising
The concept of sustainability is an intergenerational one and will never be found/end
Many political and terrorist organizations for which sustainable development is not their main focus
Outline the main inequalities in gender identified by them
G10: reduce inequalities in gender; G8: eradicate human trafficking and forced labor, which targets many womens
G3: good health and well being focuses in improving reproductive and maternal health
G4 and G5: quality education aims to improve education and training for women too
Leisure, tourism, and sport
Describe the characteristics of the leisure hierarchy [2+2]
Many sports fields for junior/student teams for a particular sport in a city than there are sports fields for professional teams in the same city
While student team fields will have only a relatively small catchment area, the catchment area of the professional fields will be much larger
Explain geographical factors that might influence decision-makers in choosing a host city for an international sports events [2+2+2]
Pre-existing venues for reducing construction costs (ex: Rio de Janeiro hosting the 2016 Olympics using venues developed for the World Cup)
Good international transport links such as airports for increasing accessibility
Good local transport infrastructure to increase accessibility
Available accommodation, for participants and supporters
corruption/money/politics
Give evidence that the perceptual carrying capacity has been exceeded (image description) [3]
Crowded car park
Congestion in narrow streets
Noise pollution from vehicles and people
Explain three reasons for the changes in international tourist arrivals [2+2+2]
Cost of air travel has reduced in recent years, so that more tourists can travel cheaply (Europe to Asia has been made much cheaper)
Increases tourism advertising in Africa has been heavily promoted in the media, so that tourists are increasingly attracted to new/more exotic destinations (The Gambia from China)
Increased affluence and leisure time for travel; changing employment patterns as people demand more paid holidays and tourism lets them stay motivated and productive
Growth of package holidays/TNCs such as Thomas Cook Group
Development of tourist infrastructure at destinations (Hamad airport in Qatar)
Credit cards/Visa Cash makes travel and payments easier
Online booking and the Internet make booking easier
Explain three political factors that affect participation and success in international sport
Government spending on specific/internationally-oriented sport facilities such as swimming pools and stadiums, thereby increasing chance of success in Olympic Games
The governmentâs role hosting of an international sporting events, such as the Olympics, which promotes national pride and encourages people to participate more widely in the sport
The governmentâs role promoting sport in education (national curricula to promote sport in schools and colleges enables elite athletes to reach global potential
Political initiatives to promote sport/government advertising with emphasis on âworld-beatingâ potential
Government support in the hosting of an international sporting events
Specific political values may encourage or deter participation (Islamic statesâ attitudes to female participation)
Using photographic evidence, suggest why the perceptual carrying capacity of this site might have been reached. [2]
Large number of visitors shown
Some may be experiencing stress due to congestion and noise
Explain two possible reasons why not all international arrivals can be classified as tourists [2]
transit/short-term passengers, not staying at least one night
refugees/asylum seekers
Business people
Long-term voluntary migrants
Research scientists
Returning residents
This question is about ecotourism
Outline what is meant by ecotourism
Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment
Sustains the well-being of local people
Involves interpretation and education
Outline what is meant by heritage tourism
Tourism based on historic legacy as its major attraction
Relates to travel to experience the place, artefacts, historic sites, and indigenous people of an area
Explain one strength and one weakness of ecotourism for local communities [2+2]
Strength: responsible ecotourism provides jobs for local people (guides in Kenya)
Weakness: limited potential for growth, because likely commercialization of traditional culture
Using one or more examples, evaluate the strategies designed to manage tourism in rural areas [E]
Designation of areas as National Parks or protected zones
Restrictions on the use of cars in sensitive areas (Orchard Road on weekends)
Encouragement of cycling by provision of bike hire and cycleways
Improvement of local public transport
Improved education and signage; education and information centers
Increased focus on ecotourism
Limiting tourist numbers
Redistributing tourists from honeypot sites
Evaluate the use of tourism as a development strategy in some low-income countries [E]
Tourism is a rapid growth industry and many-low income countries see its promotion as a development strategy
The benefits include
Creation of jobs in the tertiary sector (hotels, tourist guides) and stimulates multiplier effect
Generating income for the country through tourist expenditure and taxes
Improvements in infrastructure
Developing new skills and technology
The disadvantages include
Creating dependency on one industry which might be a problem if tourists stop visiting because of natural disaster or political unrest
Unequal development and growth of tourist enclaves
Economic leakages as profits go overseas (by international tourism agencies)
Worker exploitation: much employment is unskilled and low-paid while better-paid, more-skilled jobs go to foreign workers
Increase rural-urban migration and development of shanty towns and the informal sector
Examine the extent to which sustainable tourism might be successfully implemented in different environments [E]
Protection of the natural environment through tourism (formation of National Parks)
Managing resources to prevent depletion
Reducing the ecological footprint of tourism
Managing visitor numbers
Involvement of local people in the tourist activities
Development of infrastructure
Food and health
Briefly outline âfood securityâ [2]
Access to food
Sufficient amount
Safety
Nutritional quality
Outline ways in which the health of a pollution can be affected by chronic hunger [2]
Long-term under-nutrition resulting in stunting/body weight loss
Increased vulnerability to diseases due to weaker immune system
High maternal/infant mortality rate due to lack of nutritious food
Explain three geographic impacts at a national scale of one named water-borne or sexually transmitted disease [6]
HIV in Switzerland currently affects around 20,000 people currently, with 542 new cases in 2016
HIV has impacted Switzerlandâs GDP due to lost working hours and lower productivity, leading to many impacts
High death rates/infant mortality rates
Cost of health care
Decrease in tourism
Cost of prevention policies
Explain health improvements that have led to an increase in life expectancy in many LICs in recent years [6]
Improved access to save water resulting in a reduction of waterborne diseases such as cholera and diarrhea
Vector-borne diseases (malaria) reduced by strategies such as bed nets, spraying, cleaning stagnant water
Reduction in STDs, such as HIV/AIDS, due to better education and use of condoms
Rollout of antiretroviral therapies (ARTs) has increased life expectancy of people with HIV
Improvements in medical care, number of doctors/health professionals; vaccinations
Improvement In food supply, reduced incidence of death from malnutrition
Examine the strengths and limitations of the energy efficiency ratio as an indicator of sustainable agriculture. [E]
Energy efficiency ratio is a measure of the amount of energy input into a farming system compared with the energy outputs. A ration of greater than 1 is considered efficient, as outputs will be greater than inputs
Inputs into the system include labor, machinery, fertilizers, irrigation, and fuel, while outputs refer to the quantity/yield of food that is produced
Energy efficiency ratios differ for many farmer systems around the world, capital-intensive systems, such as irrigated rice farming, are likely to have high inputs and high yields, and might be considered as efficient
Subsistence farming systems with high inputs of labor, might also be regarded as efficient if the outputs are high
Energy efficiency ratios differ for many farming systems around the world. Capital-intensive systems, such as irrigated rice farming, are likely to have high inputs and high yields, and might be considered as efficient. Subsistence farming systems, with high inputs of labour, might also be regarded as efficient if the outputs are high.
Farming systems differ in their EERs and their relative sustainability. EER might be a good indicator of the efficiency of a farming system, but it neglects the wider environmental and social impacts of farming. Agricultural systems that have a high EER might produce plentiful food supplies, but they are not necessarily sustainable. The farming system might have an adverse impact on the land or water â for example, irrigation might lead to salinization and depletion of groundwater; pesticides might result in eutrophication, and soil quality might be degraded.